GRE Issue高频提纲——行为类

1."If a goal is worthy, then any means taken to attain it is justifiable.”
a) 先定义worthy. Welfare >harm/opportunity cost 当cost适当时，是可以的。对个人而言，比如，一个人为了更好的完成工作，选择在deadline前废寝忘食，到头来伤害了自己的身体。完全可以用更好的安排代替短期的突击。 对国家而言，比如，国家为了提高人们的福利待遇是对的，但是过分的提高税收则会提高成本，降低利润，影响经济的发展。
b) 在worthy 的前提下，还要合法。如：一公司以非法手段窃得另一个公司股票，最终合并。可能经济效益大，但不合法。会给以后带来不好的影响。还要考虑道德问题。生物学家，花钱使用其助手的卵子germ cell， 安乐死科学界的剽窃或者作假(如哈福教授伪造科研数据被开除
c) We should be alert to the possibility that individuals, organizations or governments tend to plead a worthy goal in excuse of their contemptible means and private interests。如：Hitler为了自己的政治目标，不择手段，结果给世界人民带来了重大灾难
2. "In any field of endeavor -- the sciences, the humanities, the social sciences, industry, etc. -- it is not the attainment of a goal that matters, but rather the ideas and discoveries that are encountered on the way to the goal."

1. "Most people think that their deeply held values are the result of rational choice, but reason often has little to do with the way people form values." 
2, "People's attitudes are determined more by their immediate situation or surroundings than by any internal characteristic."

1. "Instead of encouraging conformity, society should show greater appreciation of individual differences."
2."Conformity almost always leads to a deadening of individual creativity and energy."
3. "Too much emphasis is placed on role models. Instead of copying others, people should learn to think and act independently and thus make the choices that are best for them."
a) 不可否认，许多的榜样(model)、模范(paradigm)具备他们独特的优点，而这是大多数人所不具备的。通过学习、模仿(imitate)这些榜样，普通人可以迅速(immediately)找出自身的不足并加以改进，以获得属于自己的成功。比如成功的科学家都有的特质，勤奋diligence，喜欢思考，敢于挑战，和创新creativity，Newton对于苹果落地的思考，加上他的勤奋，最终发现了万有引力universal gravitation。
b) 然而，由于人们性格(character)、智力(intellect)、成长环境与经历、受到的教育的不同，每个人都面对自己独特的问题，并拥有自己的成功方式。简单的模仿甚至是照搬(copy)榜样，有可能无助于解决自身的问题甚至使自己迷失自我(lose themselves)。比如成功的比尔盖茨Bill Gates，出生在一个律师家庭，从小就很聪明的他，很容易的考上了哈佛大学Harvard University ，他在上大学期间中途终止terminate了自己的学业，去开发操作系统的代码MS-DOS。如果我们只看到他的这一点，并单纯的模仿他，我们并不会取得成功。因为并不是每个人都在开发软件发面有很高的天赋。
c) 同时，榜样身上的不足的地方，不能也学了。比如爱迪生Edison的一生有很多伟大的发明invention，而且被称为世界上最伟大的发明家 inventor, 但是他轻视理论的研究，这就使得他错过了解释爱迪生效应effects的机会。所以我们在总结前人成功的同时也要看到他们的不足。

4. "Most people recognize the benefits of individuality, but the fact is that personal economic success requires conformity."
a) 服从一直在某种程度上意味着合作，对于经济的成功有着重要作用，尤其对于复杂的经济实体，比如大的零售商;例如，现代经济市场中强调的所谓供应链管理 supply chain management，它整合和优化了供应商、制造商、零售商的效率，形成了强大的资金，信息，物流logistics的支持，可以获得更高的利润
b) 方面随着社会的发展，人们的需求越来越趋于个性化、多样化;另一方面，从供应者角度，产品差异化是保持竞争的有效手段;如Dell电脑的客户定制服务可以针对消费者需要组合电脑的硬件与软件的配置，更适合个体消费者的需要，给戴尔带来了很大的市场份额与盈利;
c) 个性意味着创新，有助于在今天竞争日益激励的经济社会里取得优势;比如福特创新发明了flow production line
d) 在经济上，新的投资利润往往很高，但是随着知道这个投资的人越来越多，利润会逐渐变少，直到没有。只有敢于冒险，自己寻找投资机会才能获得高的利润。比如股票投资，当股价很低的时侯被市场低估，如果它很有可能上涨，那么利润是很高的，因为成本低。但是很多人发现这个股票是值得投资的并开始投资，那么投资的成本会越来越高。而股价也逐渐接近它的价值，不会有很高的上涨  

1. "People work more productively in teams than individually. Teamwork requires cooperation, which motivates people much more than individual competition does."
1). 团队工作在庞大的复杂的工作方面有更多的优势specialty。每个队员都有自己的优点，充分发挥每个队员的优点会让工作更好开展。比如一个宣传团队，要完成一个新产品的宣传工作，擅长美工的人美工，写作的人写宣传材料，定计划的人定计划，则很快就可以实现产品的宣传。
2). 不同的人带来不同的观点，使得认识问题更加全面，解决方法更加多样。比如在科学研究领域，一个团队的人研究的具体课题不同，在相互交流中能够使自己了解其他领域，知识面更宽，更利于发展。
3). 对于较难较深的问题，适合一个人解决。更多的人可能会降低工作效率，以及会阻碍新的发现。比如爱因斯坦Einstein在没有任何团队的情况下提出了相对论theory of relativity。如果他当时是和团队一起合作的，那么很有可能错过发现相对论，因为在相对论刚提出的时候许多同行的科学家都反对他。
4). 组织不好的team还会起到反作用，成员之间不能有效的分工合作，互相推卸责任，反而不利于提高效率。

2. "While some leaders in government, sports, industry, and other areas attribute their success to a well-developed sense of competition, a society can better prepare its young people for leadership by instilling in them a sense of cooperation."
1). 无可否认，现代社会充满了竞争。竞争是社会进步的动力：从政治角度，候选人之间的竞争使政治更加公开化，民主化，有利于选民(美国总统大选);从经济角度，商家，产家之间的竞争促进产品质量的提高，消费者受益，比如各种不同厂家手机的竞争，使得手机的价格越来越低;从体育角度，individual之间的竞争体现了人类超越自我的人性(Olympic spirit)
2). 培养youth的竞争意识能使他们具备适应社会的生存能力，为追求自己的理想而奋斗。竞争可以更好的发挥youth的潜力和能力，比如学校的奖学金的分配，培养了学生的竞争意识，使得他们更好的学习，去争取奖学金。在这个过程中他们也掌握了一定的知识。毕竟要成为leader，需要通过与其他candidate的竞争。只有懂得取竞争才能表现出自己的优点从而成为领导
3). 然而合作意识teamwork也很重要，只有和他人合作才能共同进步，懂得合作才能更加了解一个team成员的有点和不足，才能更好的成为一个有效的领导者。(Nobel prize winner are a group of scientists)篮球比赛的时候，在不断的合作中，这个队伍是才能赢得比赛的。
4). 结论：应该培养当代年轻人同时具有竞争和合作意识(mutually compensate)
3. "Too much emphasis has been placed on the need for students to challenge the assertions of others. In fact, the ability to compromise and work with others -- that is, the ability to achieve social harmony -- should be a major goal in every school."

1. "The media -- and society in general -- mistakenly expect an individual to speak for a particular group, whether or not that individual truly represents the views of the entire group."
2. "It is primarily through our identification with social groups that we define ourselves."
3. "One often hears about the need for individuals to take responsibility for their own lives. However, the conditions in which people find themselves have been largely established long before people become aware of them. Thus, the concept of personal responsibility is much more complicated and unrealistic than is often assumed." 
4. "It is always an individual who is the impetus for innovation; the details may be worked out by a team, but true innovation results from the enterprise and unique perception of an individual."
1). 在以前，确实革新的动力往往来自于个人，很多的发明都是源自于个人的努力，例如：爱迪生Edison发明的灯泡，给人们带来了光明，比尔盖茨Bill Gate写的MS-DOS操作系统，使得使用计算机成为可能，瓦特Watt发明了蒸汽机带来了工业革命Industrial Revolution等等。
2). 但是，随着社会越来越复杂，不仅革新的细节需要来自于团队，实质的革新也不能单单依靠个人努力，比如：对太空的探索，天文学，需要很多行业专家的支持，比如机械学家，设计设备，计算机工程师，分析数据，数学家，提供必要的计算方法等。先在的微软和操作系统一个人是根本无法完成的。
3). 而且，个人的创新对于一个团队的创新有很大的作用，因为团队是由个人组成的，不同成员之间相互合作，共同努力，才能使一个团队有很多成果。比如一个团队每个人在一个不同的方面有所创新，结合起来可能取得很大的成就。
5. "Truly innovative ideas do not arise from groups of people, but from individuals. When groups try to be creative, the members force each other to compromise and, as a result, creative ideas tend to be weakened and made more conventional. Most original ideas arise from individuals working alone."

1. "Society's external rewards are no measure of true success. True success can be measured only in relation to the goals one sets for oneself."
2. "Although many people think that the luxuries and conveniences of contemporary life are entirely harmless, in fact, they actually prevent people from developing into truly strong and independent individuals."
3. "Only through mistakes can there be discovery or progress." 
4. "Success, whether academic or professional, involves an ability to survive in a new environment and, eventually, to change it."
5. "Success in any realm of life comes more often from taking chances or risks than from careful and cautious planning." 
6. "People are too quick to take action; instead they should stop to think of the possible consequences of what they might do."
7."Most people choose a career on the basis of such pragmatic considerations as the needs of the economy, the relative ease of finding a job, and the salary they can expect to make. Hardly anyone is free to choose a career based on his or her natural talents or interest in a particular kind of work."
8. "Although it is easy to respond positively to the work of another person or group, it is far more worthwhile to give negative feedback."

1. "The people who make important contributions to society are generally not those who develop their own new ideas, but those who are most gifted at perceiving and coordinating the talents and skills of others."
2. "People today are too individualistic. Instead of pursuing self-centered , separate goals, people need to understand that satisfaction comes from working for the greater good of the family, the community, or society as a whole."
3. "The concept of 'individual responsibility' is a necessary fiction. Although societies must hold individuals accountable for their own actions, people's behavior is largely determined by forces not of their own making." 
4. "A crucial test of character is whether one is able to adapt to changing social conventions without sacrificing one's principles."
5."Most people prefer restrictions and regulations to absolute freedom of choice, although they would probably deny such a preference."
6."If a society is to thrive, it must put its own overall success before the well-being of its individual citizens."
7."Reform is seldom brought about by people who are concerned with their own reputation and social standing. Those who are really in earnest about reforming a government, an educational system, or any other institution must be willing to be viewed with distain by the rest of the world.
8."Many people believe that a few individuals or small groups (family, friends, teachers, celebrities, for example) have caused them to think and behave in the way they do. Yet it is always society as a whole that defines us and our attitudes, not a few individuals."
 

1. "No matter what the situation, it is more harmful to compromise one's beliefs than to adhere to them."
2. "People who are the most deeply committed to an idea or policy are the most critical of it."
3. "In any given field, the leading voices come from people who are motivated not by conviction but by the desire to present opinions and ideas that differ from those held by the majority."
4."Most people are taught that loyalty is a virtue. But loyalty—whether to one's friends, to one's school or place of employment, or to any institution—is all too often a destructive rather than a positive force." 

1. "It is a grave mistake to theorize before one has data."
2."Much of the information that people assume is 'factual' actually turns out to be inaccurate. Thus, any piece of information referred to as a 'fact' should be mistrusted since it may well be proven false in the future."
3. "Only by being forced to defend an idea against the doubts and contrasting views of others does one really discover the value of that idea."
4. "People make the mistake of treating experts with suspicion and mistrust, no matter how valuable their contributions might be." 
5. " 'Moderation in all things' is ill-considered advice. Rather, one should say, 'Moderation in most things,' since many areas of human concern require or at least profit from intense focus."

1. "Most people live, whether physically or morally, in a very restricted circle. They make use of a very limited portion of the resources available to them until they face a great problem or crisis."
2. "Sometimes imagination is a more valuable asset than experience. People who lack experience are free to imagine what is possible and thus can approach a task without constraints of established habits and attitudes." 
3. "People have been so encouraged by society to focus on apparent differences that they fail to see meaningful similarities among ideas, individuals, and groups."
3. "People often look for similarities, even between very different things, and even when it is unhelpful or harmful to do so. Instead, a thing should be considered on its own terms; we should avoid the tendency to compare it to something else." 
4. "Spending time alone makes one a better companion to others."
5. "The most elusive knowledge is self-knowledge, and it is usually acquired through solitude, rather than through interaction with others."
6. "No one can possibly achieve success in the world by conforming to conventional practices and conventional ways of thinking."
7. "Public figures such as actors, politicians, and athletes should expect people to be interested in their private lives. When they seek a public role, they should expect that they will lose at least some of their privacy." 
8. "The widespread idea that people should make self-improvement a primary goal in their lives is problematic because it assumes that people are intrinsically deficient."